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American Institutes for Research in the Behavioral Sciences (AIR)

AIR logo (link) by RCTQED is licensed CC BY-SA 4.0 (link)
Website:

www.air.org/
Location:

Washington, DC
Tax ID:

25-0965219
Tax-Exempt Status:

501(c)(3)

Budget (2021):

Revenue: $373,123,697
Expenses: $302,864,879
Assets: $1,036,780,961
Type:

Research Organization
Formation:

1946
Chair:

Patricia Gurin

Contact InfluenceWatch with suggested edits or tips for additional profiles.

American Institutes for Research in the Behavioral Sciences (AIR) conducts behavioral and social science research for clients including the federal government. Founded in 1946, it produces white papers and provides technical assistance on social science subjects including health, education, human services, and workforce development.1

AIR’s clients include the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, George Kaiser Family Foundation, the state of California, the U.S. Department of Education, and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 2

AIR states that “embracing diverse…racial/ethnic and cultural backgrounds” and “gender identities” drives its work. 3 It adds that it implements diversity and inclusion in everything it does, including its work on American public education. 4

Background

American Institutes for Research in the Behavioral Sciences (AIR) is a behavioral and social science research organization that conducts studies, produces white papers, and provides technical assistance on social science subjects including education outcomes, physical and mental health, human services, and the workforce.5

AIR was founded in 1946 by John C. Flanagan, a psychologist who led the Aviation Psychology program for the Army Air Corps during World War II.6 He was credited with the development of the critical incident technique, which is useful in employee assessment and selection processes.7

AIR’s early research work included the development of a screening process for commercial pilots, the Project TALENT program, and a variety of selection and placement aptitude tests.8 For more than 20 years, all major airlines relied on AIR data in the recruitment and selection of airline pilots and flight engineers.9

Project TALENT is a national longitudinal study that surveyed over 440,000 high school students in 1960 and resulted in a national database of research results that was used to improve curriculum development. It was funded by the Department of Education.10

Additional studies involving these same participants have been funded since 2010 by the National Institutes for Health. One current study is the Health Equity project to determine how “systemic and structural discrimination perpetrated by education, social, and health policies lead to health disparities.”11

Inititiatives

Equity

In 2020 AIR launched the AIR Equity Initiative which has funded 57 projects and collaborated with 26 partners through 2023 to identify and find ways to address the causes of social inequality. 2023 AIR Equity Initiative partners include Congressional Black Caucus Foundation, Ford Foundation, Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, and the Spencer Foundation.12 13

In May 2024 the Biden Administration launched the STEMM Opportunity Alliance (SOA) to focus on increasing equity across STEMM fields and “eliminate systemic barriers” to achieve equity. AIR is an anchor partner in this initiative.14 American Association for the Advancement of Science is a founding partner. Other partners include Afterschool Alliance, American Association of State Colleges and Universities, Association of Public and Land-Grant Universities, IBM, National Alliance for Partnerships in Equity, and Science Philanthropy Alliance. Funders of the initiative include the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Chan Zuckerberg Initiative, the Gordon E. and Betty I. Moore Foundation, the Henry Luce Foundation, and the Simons Foundation.15

NCLB Research and ESSA Authorization

In 2006, American Institutes for Research conducted two studies of the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act, which were sources for Congress’s assessment of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) and Title I, a federal program that helps low-income students. 16 AIR concluded that there was insufficient uniformity in teacher and school improvement standards 17 18 and that NCLB lacked funding for low-income neighborhoods. 19

AIR’s research was used in nine reports between 2006 and 2011.20

ESEA was re-authorized by the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) in 2015.21 AIR’s research informed the implementation of ESSA States,22 leading to recommendations that school districts should utilize technology for accessibility 23 and guidelines for how districts should evaluate teacher performance.24

Common Core Testing

During the 2000s, AIR expanded its involvement in education research.25 The non-profit joined Smarter Balanced testing,26 which “is based on the Common Core.”27 AIR was chosen to partner with the testing effort in 2013 and 2014. 28

In the 2010s, surveys found dissatisfaction with Smarter Balanced testing. Ohio state Sen. Peggy Lehner (R) noted widespread criticism of Smarter Balanced testing in Ohio. In Florida, there were many issues with technical testing programs. In some cases, students were unable to access tests. Tampa Commissioner Pam Stewart described this as a “disruption” and demanded that AIR be held accountable. In 2013, Minnesota faced similar issues as Florida had.29

Other Education Projects

AIR is involved in Research Education Laboratories (RELs), which develop education policy in collaboration with the federal government and local school districts.30 RELs contribute to research on how the demographic group to which students belong may impact outcomes both in school and later in life.31

AIR’s Project TALENT began in 1957 and studied 400,000 students for 11 years to investigate causal relationships between high school experiences and later life experiences. The study found that socioeconomic background outweighed academic ability when predicting college enrollment and career paths, significant numbers of high school girls want to be housewives, and that there was a significant gender wage gap in 1977. 32 In the 2010s, AIR followed up with 60,000 of the original subjects to conduct an aging study. 33

Center for Analysis of Longitudinal Data in Education Research (CALDER) is a joint project between AIR and multiple universities across the United States, including Duke University, Stanford University, and University of Texas at Dallas. The CALDER project is oriented around researching education practices.34 CALDER’s first reports were published in 2008, and the center continues to publish papers.35

Clients

AIR’s client list includes large left-of-center philanthropies such as the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, the Charles Stewart Mott Foundation, the David and Lucile Packard Foundation, the John S. and James L. Knight Foundation, Open Society Foundations, the W. K. Kellogg Foundation, and the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation. It also includes nonprofit and for-profit organizations such as The Education Trust, Microsoft, and Say Yes to Education, and many United States government agencies within the U.S. Department of Defense, Department of Education, Department of Health and Human Services, and Department of Housing and Urban Development.36

Political Donations

According to OpenSecrets, AIR-associated persons have made $167,064 in political donations associated with the 2020 election cycle and $25,397 with the 2022 election cycle. Donation recipients included Democratic Presidential candidate Joe Biden, the Democratic National Committee, Sen. Elizabeth Warren (D-MA), the Democratic Senatorial Campaign Committee, and other smaller donations to Democratic candidates and politicians. There were no significant contributions to Republican candidates or politicians. 37

Funding

AIR reported revenues of $363,064,876 and expenses of $345,354,204 in 2022. The largest share of expenses was for salaries and employee benefits totaling $220,275,172.38 Revenues were generated from grants received and from contracted services.39 Government grants to AIR totaled $260,915,334.40

The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation granted AIR approximately $5.4 million for education research in 2023.41

Other donors include the Forum for Youth Investment, Dirk And Charlene Kabcenell Foundation, Cal Poly Corporation, American Association for the Advancement of Science, Urban Institute, Jobs for the Future, Ascendium Philanthropy, Columbia University, Save the Children USA, and Tides Foundation. 42

In 2022 AIR made over $4.3 million in grants to several left of center organizations including the Center for Policing Equity, the Century Foundation, and Boys and Girls Club of America of Greater Washington. 43

Leadership

Founder John C. Flanagan was AIR’s first president and CEO until 1967 and again from 1970 to 1973. 44

Jessica Heppen is the president and CEO as of 2024. She received a master’s degree and Ph.D. from Rutgers University in social psychology. She joined AIR in 2004.45 She is a member of the American Educational Research Association, the Association of Public Policy Analysis and Management, and the American Psychological Association.46 47 Heppen became AIR’s seventh president and CEO in February 2024. 48

Lawrence Bobo is board chair of AIR. He earned his Ph.D. in sociology from the University of Michigan. He is the dean of social science at Harvard University and conducts research on the “intersection of social inequality, politics, and race.”49 50 He has received research grants from the Russell Sage Foundation, Ford Foundation, Spencer Foundation,  and the National Science Foundation.51

References

  1. “Our Work.” American Institutes for Research – Our Work. Accessed May 2, 2024. https://www.air.org/our-work
  2. “Our Clients.” American Institutes for Research. Accessed May 13, 2022. https://www.air.org/our-clients
  3. “Our Commitment to Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion.” American Institutes for Research. Accessed May 13, 2022.  https://www.air.org/our-commitment-diversity-equity-and-inclusion
  4.  “Regional Education Laboratories.” American Institutes for Research. March 14, 2014.  https://www.air.org/resource/spotlight/regional-educational-laboratories
  5. “Finding Innovative Answers for Today’s Challenges.” American Institutes for Research – Our Work. Accessed April 30, 2024. https://www.air.org/our-work
  6. “Our History.” American Institutes for Research – About. Accessed April 26, 2024. https://www.air.org/about#timeline
  7. “Critical Incident Technique.” iResearch.net – Psychology. Accessed May 1, 2024. https://psychology.iresearchnet.com/industrial-organizational-psychology/i-o-psychology-assessment-intervention/critical-incident-technique/
  8. “Our History.” American Institutes for Research – About. Accessed April 26, 2024. https://www.air.org/about#timeline
  9. “Obituary. John Clemans Flanagan Pioneering Psychologist.” Association for Psychological Science. July 1, 1996. Accessed May 1, 2024. https://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/john-clemans-flanagan-pioneering-psychologist-1916-1996
  10. “Project Talent.” National Institute on Aging. Accessed May 2, 2024. https://www.nia.nih.gov/research/resource/project-talent
  11. “Project Talent.” American Institutes for Research. Accessed May 2, 2024. https://www.air.org/project/project-talent
  12. Creating Connections AIR Equity Initiative 2023 Annual Report. American Institutes for Research. Accessed May 1, 2024. https://indd.adobe.com/view/bc566367-be62-4d29-ba36-31b3a230293d
  13. “Rashawn Ray, National Expert on Racial and Social Inequity, Joins the American Institutes for Research to Lead the AIR Equity Initiative.” Globe Newswire. January 18 2023. Accessed May 1, 2024. https://www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2023/01/18/2591268/0/en/Rashawn-Ray-National-Expert-on-Racial-and-Social-Inequity-Joins-the-American-Institutes-for-Research-to-Lead-the-AIR-Equity-Initiative.html
  14. FACT SHEET: Biden-Harris Administration Announces New Multi-Sector Actions to Eliminate Systemic Barriers in STEMM.” The White House. May 1, 2024. Accessed May 2, 2024. https://www.whitehouse.gov/ostp/news-updates/2024/05/01/fact-sheet-biden-harris-administration-announces-new-multi-sector-actions-to-eliminate-systemic-barriers-in-stemm/
  15. “Partners.” SOA STEMM Opportunity Alliance. Accessed May 2, 2024. https://stemmopportunity.org/partners
  16. “Our History.” American Institutes for Research. Accessed May 13, 2022. https://www.air.org/about#timeline
  17. “State and Local Implementation of the No Child Left Behind Act Volume VIII—Teacher Quality Under NCLB: Final Report.” American Institutes for Research. Provided for U.S. Department of Education. 2009. https://www2.ed.gov/rschstat/eval/teaching/nclb-final/report.pdf
  18. “State and Local Implementation of the No Child Left Behind Act Volume III—Accountability Under NCLB: Interim Report.” American Institutes for Research. Provided for U.S. Department of Education. 2007. https://www2.ed.gov/rschstat/eval/disadv/nclb-accountability/nclb-accountability.pdf
  19. “State and Local Implementation of the No Child Left Behind Act: Volume VI—Targeting and Uses of Federal Education Funds.” U.S. Department of Education. 2009. https://www2.ed.gov/rschstat/eval/disadv/nclb-targeting/nclb-targeting.pdf
  20. “Analysis of the National Longitudinal Study of NCLB (NLS-NCLB) and the Study of State Implementation of Accountability and Teacher Quality Under NCLB (SSI-NCLB)”. American Institutes for Research. Accessed June 10, 2022. https://www.air.org/project/analysis-national-longitudinal-study-nclb-nls-nclb-and-study-state-implementation
  21. “ESEA Reauthorization.” Hunt Institute. Accessed June 10, 2022. http://www.hunt-institute.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/Update_ESEAReauthorization_Final_ForWeb.pdf
  22. “ESSA at AIR.” American Institutes for Research. Accessed May 13, 2022. https://www.air.org/resource/spotlight/essa-air
  23. “ESSA and Digital Learning Closing the Digital Accessibility Gap.” American Institutes for Research. November 2018. https://www.air.org/sites/default/files/2021-06/ESSA-Digital-Lrng-508.pdf
  24. “Teacher Effectiveness in the Every Student Succeeds Act A Discussion Guide.” American Institutes for Research. November 2016. https://www.air.org/sites/default/files/2021-06/TeacherEffectiveness_ESSA.pdf
  25. “Our History.” American Institutes for Research. Accessed May 13, 2022. https://www.air.org/about#timeline
  26. “Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium Selects American Institutes for Research to Create an Online Test Delivery System for States.” American Institutes for Research. September 6, 2012. https://www.air.org/news/press-release/smarter-balanced-assessment-consortium-selects-american-institutes-research
  27. “Smarter Balanced Assessment System.” California Department of Education. Accessed May 13, 2022. https://www.cde.ca.gov/ta/tg/sa/
  28. “Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium Selects American Institutes for Research to Create an Online Test Delivery System for States.” American Institutes for Research. September 6, 2012. https://www.air.org/news/press-release/smarter-balanced-assessment-consortium-selects-american-institutes-research
  29. O’Donnell, Patrick. “AIR takes over Ohio testing with optimism, but also controversy.” Cleveland.com. July 2, 2015. https://www.cleveland.com/metro/2015/07/air_takes_over_ohio_testing_wi.html
  30. “Regional Education Laboratories.” American Institutes for Research. March 14, 2014.  https://www.air.org/resource/spotlight/regional-educational-laboratories
  31. “About the RELs.” IES. Accessed May 26, 2022. https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/rel/About
  32. “Findings.” Project Talent. Accessed June 21, 2022. http://www.projecttalent.org/about/findings/
  33. “About Project Talent: Overview.” Project Talent. Accessed May 13, 2022. https://www.projecttalent.org/about/overview/
  34. “Center for Analysis of Longitudinal Data in Education Research (CALDER).” American Institutes for Research. Accessed May 13, 2022. https://www.air.org/centers/national-center-analysis-longitudinal-data-education-research-calder
  35. “Publications.” CALDER. Accessed June 21, 2022. https://caldercenter.org/publications?tag_select=All&field_pub_published_date_value%5Bvalue%5D%5Byear%5D=2008&field_research_areas_tid=All&field_policy_brief_value=All
  36. “Our Clients.” American Institutes for Research. Accessed May 1, 2024. https://www.air.org/our-clients
  37. “American Institutes for Research.” OpenSecrets. Accessed May 1, 2024. https://www.opensecrets.org/orgs/american-institutes-for-research/summary?toprecipcycle=2020&contribcycle=2022&lobcycle=2024&outspendcycle=2022&id=D000031483&topnumcycle=2020
  38. American Institutes For Research In The Behavioral Sciences. Return of Organization Exempt From Income Tax. (Form 990 – Part I). 2022.
  39. “American Institutes for Research in the Behavioral Sciences.” Causeiq. Accessed May 1, 2024. https://www.causeiq.com/organizations/american-institutes-for-research-in-the-behavioral,250965219/
  40. American Institutes For Research In The Behavioral Sciences. Return of Organization Exempt From Income Tax. (Form 990 – Part VIII). 2022.
  41. “Committed Grants.” Accessed May 1, 2024. https://www.gatesfoundation.org/about/committed-grants?q=American%20Institutes%20for%20Research
  42. ProPublica Nonprofit Explorer. “Results for “25-0965219” Accessed April 27, 2024. https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/full_text_search?sort=best&form%5B%5D=IRS990ScheduleI&year%5B%5D=2022&q=25-0965219&submit=Apply
  43. American Institutes For Research In The Behavioral Sciences. Return of Organization Exempt From Income Tax. (Form 990 – Schedule I). 2022.
  44. “Our History.” American Institutes for Research – About. Accessed April 26, 2024. https://www.air.org/about#timeline
  45. LinkedIn – Jessica Heppen. Accessed April 30, 2024. https://www.linkedin.com/in/jessica-heppen-a408bb40/
  46. “Jessica Heppen.” American Institutes for Research – Experts. Accessed May 2, 2024. https://www.air.org/experts/person/jessica-heppen
  47. LinkedIn – Jessica Heppen. Accessed May 2, 2024. https://www.linkedin.com/in/jessica-heppen-a408bb40/
  48. “American Institutes for Research Announces New CEO and Board Chair.” Globe Newswire. February 21, 2024. Accessed May 2, 2024. https://www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2024/02/21/2833059/0/en/American-Institutes-for-Research-Announces-New-CEO-and-Board-Chair.html
  49. “Lawrence D. Bobo.” American Institutes for Research – Experts. Accessed May 2, 2024. https://www.air.org/experts/person/lawrence-d-bobo
  50. LinkedIn – Lawrence Bobo. Accessed May 2, 2024. https://www.linkedin.com/in/lawrence-bobo-7264532b4/
  51. “Lawrence D. Bobo.” Harvard University. Accessed May 2, 2024. https://scholar.harvard.edu/bobo/home
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Nonprofit Information

  • Accounting Period: December - November
  • Tax Exemption Received: August 1, 1948

    • Available Filings

    Period Form Type Total revenue Total functional expenses Total assets (EOY) Total liabilities (EOY) Unrelated business income? Total contributions Program service revenue Investment income Comp. of current officers, directors, etc. Form 990
    2021 Dec Form 990 $373,123,697 $302,864,879 $1,036,780,961 $111,848,237 Y $291,635,316 $0 $11,944,915 $7,180,445
    2020 Dec Form 990 $290,854,826 $271,768,769 $943,035,344 $111,087,132 Y $268,854,620 $26,122 $8,621,615 $8,063,430
    2019 Dec Form 990 $829,569,118 $430,980,832 $869,577,472 $107,439,294 Y $476,002,962 $17,489 $7,966,866 $13,144,620 PDF
    2018 Dec Form 990 $481,741,424 $439,128,941 $464,107,012 $129,276,396 Y $462,380,008 $38,255 $7,264,630 $9,546,538 PDF
    2017 Dec Form 990 $457,805,054 $427,252,118 $435,565,954 $110,862,346 Y $449,114,978 $151,466 $5,297,397 $7,806,366 PDF
    2016 Dec Form 990 $458,835,950 $420,518,051 $380,943,069 $110,594,212 Y $453,000,720 $111,459 $3,680,250 $6,730,301 PDF
    2015 Dec Form 990 $476,490,415 $437,660,626 $348,281,698 $121,891,444 N $469,315,779 $306,329 $2,777,537 $6,747,195 PDF
    2014 Dec Form 990 $396,164,835 $371,441,852 $302,650,420 $109,337,954 N $384,797,411 $463,310 $3,859,400 $7,044,218 PDF
    2013 Dec Form 990 $354,615,195 $335,591,383 $266,157,083 $91,791,195 N $347,960,823 $317,449 $2,548,501 $6,011,708 PDF
    2012 Dec Form 990 $314,636,288 $296,832,656 $239,392,864 $88,693,845 N $310,634,501 $960,627 $2,780,175 $6,029,590 PDF
    2011 Dec Form 990 $279,391,722 $260,743,764 $198,648,393 $72,427,917 N $275,772,480 $719,876 $2,343,801 $9,497,738 PDF

    Additional Filings (PDFs)

    American Institutes for Research in the Behavioral Sciences (AIR)


    Washington, DC